People are running out of time. Forget about the relaxed restaurant lunches of the past scheduled days in advanced. Today’s lunch consists of a rushed brown bag meal in front of the computer desk. The ever-changing technology constantly runs ahead of the business world, and professionals are trying to catch their breath. They attempt to create more time by turning to electronic devices. First, it was the telephone, then the fax, now e-mail, and twenty-four hours in a day is still not enough. However, given the rapid advances in computer technology, electronic meetings have emerged. Electronic meetings or videoconferencing is the combination of audio, video, and communications networking technology (1). Videoconferencing includes desktop, laptop, palmtop, TV-based videoconferencing, and real-time video (2). Videoconferencing allows one person to use his office or home to communicate via computer with another computer. (the use of videoconferencing is getting momentum all around the globe.) It also allows a group of people (located in a conference room) to communicate with other people. Group videoconferencing systems use television sets as monitors. Generally, videoconferencing enhances communication, because the recipient can now analyze body language. Moreover, videoconferencing has been a success, because it saves the business world some time. Professionals no longer have to travel long distances for a meeting; they just have to log-in to their computers or walk to the videoconferencing room. Experts predict that as companies expand their operations and technology improves, up to 40% of future meetings will be electronic (3).

This paper explains videoconferencing by covering the history, technology, applications, products, and user experiences. In addition, this paper will discuss the strengths and weaknesses and future prospects of videoconferencing.

Videoconferencing was not always this prevalent. The concept was visualized over forty years ago, when researchers in the 1920s wanted to develop a telephone that could see. However, technology was not advanced enough to link voice to video. The first real videoconference took place in New York City in 1930. This videoconference used photocells instead of television and the participants spoke through microphones mounted in sound and light proof booths (4). Upon the advent of television, the idea of a "video-phone" began to actually develop. In 1964, AT&T demonstrated the world’s first digital video telephone called the Picturephone at the World’s Fair (5). AT&T’s inability to develop a comprehensive and communications network was a major reason why the technology did not spread. Digital bandwidth was still a new concept and Picturephone required 1MHz, so the product was practically impossible to use (6). Fred Haisch, one of the 300 engineers on the Picturephone team, believes human factors such as comfort level on camera also contributed to the halt of the picturephone (7). In the 1960s, a network capable of transmitting computer data, accessing remote systems and connecting people so they could communicate and exchange information had not yet been developed.

Throughout the late 1960s and early 1970s foreign companies began to develop and offer video-telephone products. A Swedish company, L M Ericsson, created a product, LME, which offered better resolution than the blurry Picturephone picture. In 1971, Ericsson used the LME for the first transatlantic video telephone demonstration (8). Three French companies demonstrated the Vistaphone. In Japan, Hitachi, Toshiba, and Fujitsu developed video phones of their own. However, despite international developments, it was not until the early 1990s that desktop video communication products were available.

In the early 1990s, AT&T introduced five product lines advancing the desktop videoconferencing system, and PictureTel had already developed technology improving the picture quality at reduced costs. In 1994, AT&T announced the WorldWorx service, AT&T’s video network service offering. By early 1995, AT&T formed alliances with Intel, Apple, IBM, and Sun Microsystem to provide compatible products complimenting AT&T’s network services. So, it was not a surprise when AT&T announced, in July of 1995, the world’s first service to make real-time voice, video, and data communications possible for multiple participants on one call (9).

By the mid 90s, the dropping prices of PCs and their increasing processing power spurred the development of many PC-based videoconferencing systems. For example, Intel became involved in the desktop videoconferencing world by late 1995 primarily to create a demand for more powerful microprocessors. CLI, a major player in room videoconferencing, also developed a desktop strategy. In 1990, it formed an alliance with AT&T and PaineWebber eventually lead to the introduction of AT&T’s videophone on the market. In 1995, Apple Computer developed its own desktop conferencing system called QuickTime Conferencing. In the same year, Sprint introduced personal conferencing service.

Progressively, more corporations are using videoconferencing as a means to communicate with other corporations. Yesterday, secretaries were typing memos that required days to send. Today, professionals are instantly communicating messages with a click of one button. Typewriters replaced handwritten notes, and now, electronic meetings are replacing typewriters. Today’s technology is allowing professionals to finally catch up their breath. Videoconferencing saves time. This saved time can now be spent achieving more at work or visiting families. Therefore, videoconferencing has managed to bridge the gap of not only business relationships but familial relationships, as well.

Today’s technology makes videoconferencing possible at three levels; desktop, or personal computer to personal computer, two site conference room "cybermeetings" and multiple site conference room "cybermeetings". The basic methods of gathering, transmitting, and receiving audio-video information are well established technologies. However, videoconferencing requires the real-time transfer of large amounts of audio, video and information data on directed and secure transmission media. Therein lies the biggest technological obstacle to videoconferencing--the gap between the communication requirements and the limitations of available communication infrastructure. "To paraphrase the real estate cliché, the three most important considerations in videoconferencing are connections, connections, connections (10)." Most of the technological research and development in the past years has been dedicated to solving this problem.

The problem arises from the fact that we wish to meet electronically over long distances. The original telephone network was intended for the transmission of analog audio signals in the range of 3500 Hz, adequate for the sound range of the human voice. Since then, long distance telephone transmission has been digitized, although most of the local phone system still operates on an analog basis. The telephone system was adapted for the transmission of digital information through the use of modems (Modulator/Demodulator). These devices convert analog signals to digital signals and back again enabling computers, and other devices outputting digital signals, to communicate over the existing phone network. Modem technology has pushed bandwidth, or speed of transmission, to about 34,000 bits/sec. Such transmission speeds impose limitations upon videoconferencing.

The first limitation involves the audio portion of the signal to be sent. According to "Mainstream Videoconferencing, (11)" digitized sounds use numbers called samples to represent the loudness of a sound. The range of numbers in a sample primarily determines the signal to noise ratio. Speech normally uses a 7 bit sample while high fidelity music would use a 16 bit sample. To get a sufficiently good representation of a sound, two samples per bit are taken. This results in speech requiring 8,000 7 bit samples and music 44,000 16 bit samples. Digital phone systems are designed to handle the connection and transmission of many channels of 56,000 (8000 x 7) bits/sec., or 64,000 (8000 x 8) bits/ sec. The former is called "restricted channels" and is the US standard while the latter is the foreign standard and is called a B channel bearer. A typical urban phone line can transmit two channels. At first glance, it would seem that one channel is barely adequate for voice transmissions and not capable of high fidelity music at all. This limitation worsens when combined with the video signal requirements.

The second limitation involves video images. Video images are composed of pixels (picture elements). The North American broadcast system uses 360 to 400 pixels in 480 rows. For videoconferencing, the monitors have a standard picture consisting of 352 pixels (horizontal resolution) and 288 pixels (vertical resolution). This results in 101,376 pixels per frame of image. Each pixel requires 24 bits, 8 each for the three primary colors, red, green and blue. So, one frame needs 2,433,024 bits (101,376 x 24). To transmit motion, 15 to 30 frames per sec. are needed. Full color motion video could require 73 million bits/sec. or well over 1,000 B channels at 64,000 bits/sec. Full color motion video appears impossible, if limited to just these numbers.

To overcome the bandwidth or speed limitations of the current telephone systems, science has turned to two areas: (1)the development of software-based mathematical computations that can reduce the amount of data needed to transmit an acceptable audio-video signal and (2)the development of new transmission media with high bandwidths enabling more data to be carried. In the first area, the analog signal is filtered, converted to a digital signal and then passed through a series of coding routines. The coding routines compress the signal by reducing the samples required and transmitting only the new part of the previous signal. With the use of several different coding functions, the normal audio bandwidth for speech (3,300Hz.) can be reduced to a digital signal requiring only 48,000 to 64,000 bits/sec. Video signals are also filtered and then converted to a signal that is scaled down so that the resolution requirements are reduced to 176 x 144 pixels (one quarter of the common interchange format of 352 x 288) and the sample bit size is reduced from 24 to 16 bits. Temporal filtering reduces the number of frames per sec. from 30 to 15, just sufficient to maintain fair quality motion. Coding of the video signal allows less data to be transmitted by only sending that part of the image that is different from the previous image. All of this compression results in a 50:1 reduction in data requirements, but roughly 23 B-channels would still be needed for transmission. Further coding arbitrarily reduces the signal requirements to fit a 2 B- channel system with 15 frames/sec (12). Technology enables us to actually transmit audio and video signals over the present phone system, but at the result is a fair to poor quality picture. Future refinements may allow more compression, yet this is not the best solution to the problem.

The second area science has turned to in order to overcome bandwidth/speed limitations is the development of new transmission media. New technology has created media that is capable of much higher transmission speeds which improve the quality of videoconferencing. Local area networks (LAN) can be directly connected using digital transmission media and by-passing the ordinary phone system. This allows the use of much higher speed transmission media such as coaxial cable or fiber optic cable. These ‘Ethernets" are rated at 10MM bits/sec but usually operate at 5 MM bits/sec. These speeds are reduced when the distance between PC’s lengthens with connection speeds slowing from 1.544MM bits/sec to only 56k bits/sec (13). This makes LAN practical only over relatively short distances of 1 to 2 kilometers. Over greater distances, PC’s are usually connected over the Internet and are once again dependent on the speed of the phone system media. A common problem arises when traffic is heavy over packet switched connections such as the Internet or Ethernets. Packets of data must share the same transmission medium and are often slowed or arrive out of sequence when traffic is heavy. This results in audio/video presentations that appear jerky or interrupted (14).

In an effort to avoid the mixed transmission path of conventional telephone systems which include analog phones, analog circuits and digital circuits, a new type of telephone circuit is being used that is digital from point to point. This type of digital connection is called a Basic Rate ISDN (BRI). ISDN stands for Integrated Services Digital Network and operates on a circuit switched basis where the connection--once established--is solely dedicated to that transmission (15). BRI circuits contain two 64,000 bits/sec B channels and one 16,000 bits/sec D-channel that is used for dialing and other signaling. The benefits of BRI lines include the complete digital operation, the availability of a second audio channel, and the advantages offered by the separate D-channel for signaling (16). Other advanced telephone circuits used in videoconferencing are the Switched 56, T1 and PRI. A Switched 56 circuit is a 56,000 bits/sec second circuit that can be used in tandem to get comparable bandwidth to a BRI line A T1 is a high speed circuit rated at 1,544,000 bits/sec and uses two pairs of telephone wires and are often used to connect distant LAN segments in the US. PRI stands for Primary Rated ISDN, a circuit that is used in Europe and Asia and is rated at 1,536,000 bits/sec or the equivalent of 23 B-channels and a 64,000 bits/sec D-channel (17).

Videoconferencing has managed to overcome the many limitations of earlier technologies. With increased demand for videoconferencing, the industry is growing. However, the market is place is still new, and potential customers need to be informed about the various products and price structures. With this information, potential users can better determine the product that best suits them. The paragraphs below describe all three videoconferencing variations and inform potential users about each variation’s corresponding videoconferencing products and price. The information is provided by "Mainstream Videoconferencing."

For this form of videoconferencing, an average modern PC would need the following materials:

1. Hardware and software to enable connections to other systems in the videoconferencing.

For audio input, a microphone is used. For output, speakers or headphones are sufficient. In addition to the software which converts the audio signal to digital, compresses, and encodes the signal, echo cancellation processing is necessary. (One’s microphone will pick up the other’s voice on the speaker in the course of a simultaneous conversation.) Most PCs are set up for only one direction communication and playback; Therefore, they need to be upgraded to allow full bi-directional capability.

A small camera provides video input, and the PC’s CRT serves as output display. As both parties are usually seated directly in front of their respective PCs, there is no need for interactive controls of the audio and video input. Current software makes multiple site desktop videoconferencing possible and often utilizes a split screen display so all participants can be seen.

Additional products allow participants to share documents and programming. In document sharing, all parties can view and manipulate the same document at the same time although some protocol must be observed, so two or more people do not simultaneously try to edit. In program sharing, all parties can share the same program to work on the shared document.

Available products include Cu-SeeMe, Connextix’s VideoPhone, and Intel. Cu-SeeMe was developed for TCP/IP networks and the Internet and is designed to use algorithms. The product runs on Windows, Windows 95, and Macintosh computers and allows no more than eight participant windows. The basic package is offered at approximately $100 per workstation. Connextix supports video and the QuickCam. Because of the products digital capabilities, the signal does not need to be converted from analog to digital. It can be used with a 28.8k modem, LAN, or ISDN connections. The package costs approximately $60 per workstation or $160 when packaged with the QuickCam. Intel’s Proshare VS2000 is both ISDN and LAN-based. The system uses Proshare software to access windows-based applications and is priced at $1499.

In this form of videoconferencing the area of interest has expanded from a window to a room perspective, from individuals to groups, from one position presentation to freedom of movement. Here, the technology is the same, but more equipment is required. The camera needs to be able to give a room wide view, have the ability to zoom, and be capable of auto exposure and auto focus. To facilitate the positioning of the camera’s point of view, the camera should be motorized and controllable by remote control. Video displays can be 27" diagonal CRT’s with 352 x 288 resolution. A higher resolution is needed if good images of transmitted documents or computer generated images are to be obtained. If computer images are used, a scan converter is necessary to adjust the computer output to the proper proportions on regular TV video.

The audio portion also requires more equipment for room videoconferencing. Microphones should be directional to focus on what you want to hear. Microphone input is automatically mixed and extraneous noise is removed through the use of a noise gate that only opens the microphone when a sufficiently loud sound is detected. Volume is also automatically controlled to allow for movement around the microphone. Connections are provided for additional audio input from telephones, PCs or VCRs. Loud speakers of sufficient number should be placed around the room to ensure coverage and avoid feedback problems from microphones.

Additional presentation devices can be integrated into this form of videoconferencing. Shared overhead projects utilizing fixed overhead cameras can be used, although the room image is lost when the document viewer is in use. To avoid this, use a display window on the monitor or multiple display screens. Specialized projectors can capture documents at very high resolutions and provide displays at that resolution. Fax machines can be linked to provide handouts and special converters are available to transmit 35mm slide images.

An updated version of the white erasable presentation board, called the "whiteboard", allows participants to write on the whiteboard which automatically saves the notation on the PC for future reference or editing. Current technology does not allow direct notation on the whiteboard from one’s PC, although one can project an image onto the whiteboard and work on that image.

It is very expensive to connect multiple site systems in the same manner as two site systems over long distances. The difficulties line in the two way direct connections between each site participating in the videoconference. An alternative approach is to use a Multipoint Control Unit that serves as a network focal point. This star type architecture is configured so that all data, audio, video, and control data is coded and decoded from all sites and sent to each site in data streams appropriate to that site. To start a videoconference using a MCU, each site must be instructed to dial the numbers corresponding to the assigned ports of the MCU at the designated time (19).

Room-based system products include both two-site and multiple-site room conferencing. The equipment involved in these systems allow the system to broadcast from a PC, VCR, or CD player. The Rollabout systems allow videoconferencing to be used throughout the organization wherever there is access to a transmission line of sufficient bandwidth. VTEL offers the Smart videoconferencing Room System (LC5000) which features a dual monitor configuration. It allows the user to add on tracking cameras and multipoint chair control; the cost is approximately $54,000. Intel’s Proshare Conferencing Teamstation is a group-based conferencing product. The system includes a high-resolution monitorand a motorized camera. The broadcast system allows for two individuals to speak without echoing. The system runs approximately $18,000. MBONE is a virtual network implemented as a subset of the Internet. It provides multicast video, audio, and shared whiteboard facilities across the Internet. MBONE provides multi-point connection while preserving Internet bandwidth through the use of multicasting. MBONE programs run on UNIX workstations and are freely available on the internet (20).

Much of the same equipment used in two site room videoconferencing is required for multiple site meetings, as well. However, additional video displays may be needed depending on the approach used to conduct a multiple site videoconference; the continuous presence of the object demands the use of multiple displays. With a voice activated switching approach, the video is automatically displayed from the site with the strongest audio signal. A conducted or "chaired" approach allows one site to be the designated conference conductor who selects the video image seen at the other sites. This approach could be used with a single or multiple video display. The technologies applicable to videoconferencing and their availability and future development is further discussed in appendix I.

Millions of Americans alone are taking advantage of the developments of videoconferencing. Schools, universities, medical professionals, businesses, and the government are just a few of millions who are utilizing videoconferencing for their long distance communication needs. In order to improve the quality of videoconferencing, user feedback is important. Through users’ experiences, technological enhancements are made possible. Industry players can further develop the convenience and benefits offered by their products through user experiences. Furthermore, companies have the opportunity to answer their own questions about their products through the opinions of users.

Mr. Paul Stockton is a consultant for videoconferencing for Allstar Systems located in Houston, TX. His experience with videoconferencing has enhanced his professional career and believes the new technology is benefical. Mr. Stockton states the technology of videoconferencing will be the greatest productivity tool with in the next 10 years. (10)" videoconferencing is beneficial to corporations as well as to small businesses. Smaller businesses can take on a leading advantage of competing or communicating with larger businesses through videoconferencing. Businesses can have that important contract virtually signed on the spot. Mr. Stockton believes videoconferencing allows businesses to be visually seen and heard in "real time" to locations around the world; this cuts travelling expenses and time wasted waiting for a plane or a cab. According to Mr. Stockton, one major point of videoconferencing holds true whether your business is small or large: "If your business purchases a low quality type of delivery system, your participants at remote sites will end up focusing on the messenger and not on the message." Mr. Stockton has used Sony’s TriniCom systems and advocates that model as producing the highest quality of delivery featured in videoconferencing: "Sony’s TriniCom videoconferencing systems are targeted to meet any business need." This wide selection ranges from a personal one to one communications system (TriniCom 500)--which can turn your desktop PC into a interactive platform--to a supersite (TriniCom 5100) capable of producing four remote sites simultaneously, by using its Quartet build in Multipoint capabilities. The Quartet option on the 5100 model links four sites together in a single videoconference giving the user the option to view all of the sites at once on a split screen. To learn more about Sony’s TriniCom videoconferencing models visit Http://www.el.sony.com/SEL/bpg/matrix.bpg.

Mr. Stockton mentioned other big players in videoconferencing besides Sony that he has found "quite useful;" they include Picture Tel, VTel, CLI, and NEC. He explained the essential basics needed for videoconferencing to work, regardless of the system used. First, a camera with video signals of NTSC color and EIA standards is needed. Second, a monitor with excellent resolution is necessary. Third, a CODEC (Compression/Depression) device should be used in order to shrink/expand data. He emphasized the importance of the last item: "Since monitors send out analog signals, the CODEC device converts the analog signals into a digital signal and then once its received by a site, the CODEC device converts the signal back from a digital signal into an analog signal." Additionally, Mr. Stockton mentioned the need to use a modem with at least with 64 kbps to be able to receive a picture without any freezing and an ISDN line to be able to send voice, video, and data simultaneously. For further information about videoconferencing from Mr. Paul Stockton, contact him at Allstar Systems either by phone at (713) 795-2000 or by e-mail at pstockton@allstar.com.

Another user interviewed was Dr. John Hansen, a professor in the College of Technology at the University of Houston’s main campus. The College of Technology’s videoconferencing room is equipped with the same requirements as Mr. Stockton mentioned--cameras, a CODEC device, monitors, and a 64 -384 kbps modem over an ISDN leased line. Dr. Hansen states that the College of Technology’s videoconferencing system can interact with 3 to 4 remote sites simultaneously and has access to six remote sites at different colleges across Texas. Dr. Hansen has been teaching distance-learning technology courses via videoconferencing approximately two years and is also satisfied with its convenience and benefits but explains that there are some drawbacks. Below is an excerpt from the brief interview with Dr. Hansen exemplifying his beliefs and experiences.

Q: At the beginning before using the equipment, do you remember what your expectations were from videoconferencing?

A: I hoped that I could continue with my normal ways of teaching, being able to walk around the classroom and interact with my students. I wanted it to be transparent, as if I was present in the remote site with my students.

Q: Have these expectations been met?

A: No, but I have learned to adapt to the new ways of teaching. With videoconferencing, I have to stand behind the operating platform/podium and I’m limited to being able to move around the classroom.

Q: How much do you spend in preparation prior to a learning session?

A: For a new course, I’ll spend about four hours in preparation for every hour that is taught. And if it is a course that I’m currently teaching, then I will probably spend about two hours in preparation for every hour that is taught.

Q: What are key factors for a successful videoconferencing session?

A: Successful key factors are to have a well-organized course outline, be familiar with the equipment, have the ability to be creative, and last to have students who are not afraid.

Q: What negative experiences have you had with videoconferencing? If any.

A: The disadvantages that I have experienced with videoconferencing is not being able to connect to a site. Sometimes a connection to a site isn’t made due to bad weather or mechanical/technical problems with the equipment. We had one remote site in which we never could get connected to and eventually we had to drop off-line.

Q: Is there any certain course material you think that shouldn’t be taught via videoconferencing?

A: Yes, I think that any course that requires computers shouldn’t be taught via videoconferencing.

Q: Do you feel that the future of University of Houston’s instruction is moving towards videoconferencing?

A: Yes, if it is an instruction course containing a lot of communication and is taught to a small group of people. With distance learning via videoconferencing, students are being able to enroll in courses that may not be offered at their local area institutions.

Generally, Dr. Hansen’s experience is positive. He feels videoconferencing will enlarge students’ selection of classes and make attending class more convenient. The disadvantage of preparing twice as long for a new course seems to be quite laborious but standard when working with high technology. And, his negative experience is prevalent among other users, as well. With videoconferencing technology constantly progressing, these negative aspects will soon be rectified. Currently, however, the overall experiences of both professionals is positive and their use videoconferencing technology has only enriched their careers and the University of Houston.

The University of Houston is not the only higher education institution turning towards videoconferencing for long distance educational needs. In this February’s issue of "Current Technology" a survey is conducted by the United States Department of Education titled "Survey on Distance Education Courses Offered by Higher Education Institutions" (22). A 20-question survey was given to a representative panel of 1,274 schools to gather information about the type of classes, technology, and students that are involved in distance education programs. The list below provides a sample of the concluded facts.

• A third of the schools offer distance education; another quarter plan to offer it within the next three years.
• Public schools offer distance education courses with much greater frequency than private schools.
• Two way interactive video and other computer-based technology were the favored technologies that schools would choose to start or increase in the next 3 years.

Like most technology, there will be flaws in videoconferencing operations until the user completely understands how this technology works. For this reason, potential user education and user feedback is important. But, the industry will not continue to grow if there is nothing to encourage development. Therefore, user experience is the gateway to higher-based technology. The future of videoconferencing will lead to only greater user-benefits, and the above interviews have demonstrated that even the current advancements of videoconferencing greatly benefit any user.

Videoconferencing combines the computer industry, the communications industry, and the consumer electronic industry. This combination connects users to all aspects of the outside world through their home, office, or on the road. The convenience of this connection has contributed to the growth of the consumer market for PCs and telecommunication products, which establishes a market for videoconferencing. As long as users across the globe continue to "surf the net" and show an interest in these new forms of communication, the demand for videoconferencing will expand. As videoconferencing advances, the benefits will better serve businesses. Even though airplanes will not become a thing of the past, videoconferencing is becoming a treasured business device. The benefits affect both the business world and the academic world. The paragraphs below describe the benefits of videoconferencing.

Executives no longer have to travel as often across the country for presentations. The frequency of travelling decreases with videoconferencing. Therefore, travel and accommodation expenses lessen. The saved money can be channeled into other areas of the business that can enhance competition. Most staff can be included in the meetings reducing the cost of sending messages. Additionally, collaboration on documents through conferencing reduces the needs and costs for printing, faxing and mailing documents.

Professionals are no longer tied up traveling across the country repeating the same presentation to different audiences. Long flights and delays are a foreign concept with videoconferencing, and this timed saved leaves more time for businesses and its staff to be more productive. Videoconferencing allows for the simultaneous input of a number of people; this reduces the time needed for communicating messages. For companies, videoconferencing can improve the remote job interview process. Staff members can remain in the office while interviewing various potential employees, and potential employees can remain where they live while interviewing in different cities. This allots both staff and potential worker more time to interview with others.

Companies today conduct frequent training sessions on everything from teaching employees how to use new corporate software to updating managers on the latest human resource policy. Using videoconferencing systems, companies can connect their locations via PC in order to share teaching resources and bring remote sites together. This benefit enhances each training session nationwide. Additionally, on or off-site video links can keep businesses in constant contact with their customers and give them a strategic advantage over their competition.

The video interactivity enables both teachers and students to respond to visual cues during the learning interaction. It reduces the isolation of students studying at a distance. The technology enables the conventional teaching of lecturing to be delivered at a distance. Furthermore, it provides instantaneous communication and feedback from afar. Professors can use distance programming to complement other instructional forms. If televisions are not available, distance education can also be performed using radio or telephone communications.

Videoconferencing improves the way people work and communicate. However, videoconferencing creates new conditions for preparing for presentations, because meeting leaders must rehearse longer and get acquainted with the equipment. This increase in in-depth structure results in a longer set-up times for conferences and a greater degree of advanced notice and scheduling for all participants. videoconferencing also requires that meetings and training sessions maintain a more disciplined nature (23). With most videoconferencing systems, conferences can loose their focus if participants fail to follow the structure of the event; this can create problems for the businesses during later analysis of the presentation. Another disadvantage to videoconferencing is the self-conscious feeling participants may get as a result of being on camera; this can affect the natural flow of the presentation. Additionally, background noise is one of the leading disruptions to most videoconferencings. The compressed video images are not high quality images and can limit the full advantage to be gained from visual cues (24). Site establishment must take into consideration the availability of ISDN lines to the planned sites. Therefore, businesses must consider that it may not be possible to install videoconferencing at a chosen site due to the lack of an ISDN line.

The capital expenditure needed to establish videoconferencing sites is very high. Full motion video is relatively expensive to transmit requiring access to broad bandwidth communications lines. Delivering education is best used for tutorial type lessons rather than lectures or information dissemination (25). If the education program is teaching by means of a teleconference and is over 20 minutes, the hand-held phone can become tedious and uncomfortable. Although this discomfort is removed when a hands-free phone is used, it can still be difficult to describe or explain information without visual cues.

Not all companies use videoconferencing technology. However, the number of companies engaging in electronic meetings is steadily increasing. As technology advances bandwidth and compression techniques, companies stand to gain from this growing market. The videoconferencing industry will focus on all market segments, in order to meet the diverse needs of potential buyers and expand their market growth. Therefore, both desktop and room-based conference systems will improve as technology advances. Smaller companies will likely begin to specialize in targeting specific segments of the market place (26).

As the prices of PC drop, the number of desktop units will increase in businesses and at homes. This trend will cause videoconferencing to advance further into the Web generation. As electronic gadgets become more favorable and convenient, the costs for the technology and communication will continue to drop. The proliferation in the desktop videoconferencing market and the globalization of ISDN has also helped popularize this technology (27). Moreover, videoconferencing equipment in the future will be more and more common. Although the technology does have its limitations, there are numerous advantages which more than compensate for this. In this modern world where business is becoming a global phenomenon, videoconferencing has become the only efficient alternative to conducting serious business meetings.

Dr. Stephen Shao, Director, Project DIANE Video Network/TSU OBER explains the future trend of videoconferencing for the 1997 Govenor’s Economic Summit. This list below summarizes his presentation on the next step of the videoconferencing industry.

• Expected rapid growth in the business use of desktop video
• Desktop video forecast
• Ongoing quality concerns with Internet and modem-based video solutions
• Large existing installed base of H.320 video
• Internet "pull"

• Many equipment options and vendor from which to select
• Not quite as good as TV but best quality alternative at present

Inexpensive desktop videoconferencing gives further impetus for expansion of the Internet community and the growth of Internet traffic (28). Videoconferencing’s need for high-bandwidth connectivity, such as ISDN lines, creates a short-term impediment for home use. Nevertheless, the industry moves full speed ahead and videoconferencing is being used by rapidly increasing number of people. As ISDN gains popularity, big players are rushing in. For example, Microsoft has released a Windows 95 ISDN driver to allow use of ISDN on the Windows 95 desktop. Ths far, the driver has been working well. Meanwhile, Pacific Telesis and GTE are preparing to lower their monthly ISDN subscription rates (29).

During the past year alone the major players in the desktop videoconferencing market have changed. For example, AT&T is dropping out of business and Sun Microsystem (ShowMe)and SGI(InPerson) find their profit margins have decreased, thus, lowering the prices (30). On the other hand, new players are emerging. The common characteristics of these new players include cross platform capability, open standards, and smaller, better, and faster products. For example, Netscape communications released CoolTalk and LiveMedia that works on all major platforms that can run Netscape’s Navigator software. Microsoft put out the corresponding NetMeeting and ActiveX for free in hopes of grabbing the leadership of the desktop media standard.

For the High-end VTC units, PictureTel still has good market share. However, their market share is shrinking and is no longer in a position to set the VTC standard alone. In fact, Intel is aggressively working to set the standard by making sure their software is H.320 and T.120 compliant (31). For serious desktop videoconferencing and application sharing in the PC market, Intel leads, for the moment. Because Intel refused to consider porting their Proshare Video System to other platforms, it is not sure how long their leadership can last. Netscape and Microsoft are catching up. In the new world of a new release every other month, it is not surprising to see that Intel will lose its leadership to either Netscape or Microsoft very soon. Future research will focus on how to integrate the entire range of communication and operations tools in order to mesh the virtual and physical work environments into a streamlined process.

Progressive companies today are exploring how videoconferencing can be implemented into their business environments. As with all new technologies, history has shown that initially these new tools are best introduced as a shared resource. By encouraging inter-departmental use of strategically located videoconferencing equipment, companies will be able to gradually introduce employees to a powerful and cost effective method of collaboration between remote location. Inevitably, employees will be finding ways to move the strategy forward by using this resource to become more productive in their daily work. The videoconferencing industry objective is to integrate the resources required to become each company’s solution provider. By the beginning of the new millenium, over half of the business world will replace old-time organizational culture with the videoconferencing concept.

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(1) http://www.bitscout.com/faqs2.htm

(2) Rosen, Evan. Personal Videoconferencing. pg. 17. Manning Publications, 1996.

(3) Watson Jane. The Minute Takers’ Handbook. Pg.77. Self-Counsel Press, 1992.

(4) Creighton, James. Cybermeeting. pg.111. American Management Association, 1998.

(5) http://www.at.com/gov/defense/videoconf.html.

(6) Rosen, Evan. Personal Videoconferencing. pg.168.

(7) Rosen, Evan. Personal Videoconferencing. pg. 46.

(8) Rosen, Evan. Personal Videoconferencing. pg. 170.

(9) Rosen, Evan. Personal Videoconferencing. pg. 172.

(10) Duran, Joe and Sauer, Charlie. Mainstream Videoconferencing. pg. 221. Addison Wesley Longman, Inc., 1997.

(11) Duran and Sauer. Mainstream Videoconferencing. pg. 7-9.

(12) Duran and Sauer. Mainstream Videoconferencing. pg. 39-41.

(13) Duran and Sauer. Mainstream Videoconferencing. pg. 31.

(14) www.visc.vt.edu/succeed/videoconf.html.

(15) www.visc.vt.edu/succeed/videoconf.html

(16) Duran and Sauer. Mainstream Videoconferencing. pg. 18.

(17) Duran and Sauer. Mainstream Videoconferencing. pg. 19.

(18) Duran and Sauer. Mainstream Videoconferencing. pg. 29.

(19) Duran and Sauer. Mainstream Videoconferencing. pg. 70.

(20) http://www.visc.vt.edu/succeed/videoconf.html.

(21) Interview with Mr. Paul Stockton.

(22) Smith, Allison. Current Technology. "Distance Learning Becomes Reality." February 1998. Pg 20-24.

(23) Watson, Jane. The Minute Taker’s Handbook. pg. 77.

(24) Watson, Jane. The Minute Taker’s Handbook. pg. 78.

(25) http://www.visc.vt.edu/succeed/videoconf/html.

(26) Creighton,James. Cybermeeting. pg. 185.

(27) Creighton, James. Cybermeeting. pg. 192.

(28) http://www.visc.vt.edu/succeed/videoconf.html.

(29) Duran and Sauer. Mainstream Videoconferencing. pg. 206.

(30) Rosen, Evan. Personal Videoconferencing. pg. 170.

(31) Rosen, Evan. Personal Videoconferencing. pg. 174.

(32) Creighton, James. Cybermeeting. pg. 49-51.

Technological Ingredients of Cybermeetings (32)

Groupware that permits joint editing of a product-

Multimedia presentations/modeling/simulation

Immediate access to databases

Software agents that can carry out assigned tasks

Meeting room videoconferencing with

Desktop videoconferencing

Voice and written interface with the computer

Whiteboard technology/PC-linked projection

Wall-size PC-linked projection screens/systems

Thin-film deposits on walls

Modeling/holographic projections

Expert systems